Bilingual & Multilingual Learners: Assessment, Instruction & Identity

Orthographic Transparency & Why English Is Challenging

Languages differ in how predictably letters map to sounds:

• Transparent orthographies (e.g., Greek, Spanish): more consistent spelling–sound correspondences
• Opaque orthographies (e.g., English): more irregular patterns and greater memory demands

Learners moving from transparent systems to English may find spelling and irregular word reading particularly challenging even with strong reasoning and oral skills.

Cross-Linguistic Transfer (Positive and Negative)

We consider:

• first-language structures and proficiency
• skills that transfer positively across languages
• areas requiring explicit, targeted instruction in English

Assessment Considerations for Multilingual Students

High-quality assessment should:

• gather detailed linguistic and educational history
• consider age, context, and quality of English exposure
• use culturally and linguistically appropriate tools where possible
• compare performance across languages when data are available

We collaborate with families and assessors to support accurate, respectful interpretation and to avoid pathologizing language learning.

Culturally & Linguistically Responsive Instruction

Effective instruction:

• builds on existing linguistic knowledge and prior schooling
• makes cross-language connections explicit (e.g., shared roots, cognates)
• integrates oral-language development into strategy instruction
• uses inclusive texts that reflect learners’ identities
• frames bilingualism and multilingualism as cognitive and cultural strengths

Our goal is to support English literacy while honouring students’ identities and home languages.